Glaciated alpine areas form a fascinating basis for studying environmental processes. Glaciers can be found at virtually any latitude on the globe where the mountains are high enough and the moisture supply large enough to promote permanent ice cover. Figure 1.1 provides a schematic representation of the way in which the variables of altitude, latitude and climate interact to provide regional thresholds above which glaciers may occur. Thus, in mountainous areas in maritime climatic zones and in higher latitudes, glacier snouts will frequently extend to sea level, whereas in the arid continental areas of the tropics, permanent ice and snow cover can occur only at very high altitudes. The presence or absence of glaciers in a drainage basin above the regional threshold will, of course, depend on other local factors, notably the size, orientation and slope of the basin and the way that these interact with larger scale patterns of precipitation and insolation, to control moisture inputs to the basin and losses through ablation, evaporation and runoff and thus the rate of movement and the mass balance of areas of ice or snow within the basin. The significance of these local characteristics will also vary with macro-climate as it is affected by latitude and altitude and will affect the dynamism of the glacial system. <...>

In the late 20 th century, biogeochemistry emerged as a new discipline in which the biological, physical, and human sciences collaborate (CGCR, 1999; Schlesinger, 1997). Biological, because the chemical cycles of the planet are mediated by life (Table 1). Physical, because of the strong coupling between climate and atmospheric composition so evident in the glacial-interglacial record of the ice cores (Fig. 1). And, human, because of the massive human disruption of the planet's carbon and nitrogen cycles by fossil fuel burning (which produces CO2 and a range of volatile nitrogen compounds) (Fig. 2). 

The formation and transformation of oceanic sediments involve geological, biological, physical and chemical processes. The knowledge of oceanic sediments and other objects of the Earth and Ocean Sciences therefore requires a multidisciplinary approach. This knowledge considerably increased during the past 50 years, closely following significant progress in the methods of investigation at sea and in the laboratory. In addition, ocean exploration is deeply rooted in History. Our understanding of the Ocean (including oceanic sediments and related processes) progressed step-by-step, following the evolution of techniques and ideas. Chapters 1 and 2 summarize the historical aspects of Oceanography (focusing on Marine Geology), along with the variety of processes that drive the formation and transport of sediment particles as well as their accumulation and transformation in oceanic sediments. <...>

Hydrology has been almost taken over by mathematical modeling. However, natural systems are multidimensional and multiparametric, and to understand them real data—observations and measurements obtained in real study areas—are needed. The following are examples of the applied research approach:

The three spatial dimensions are surveyed via a large number of sampling and measuring points, e.g., springs, wells, drillings, geological surveys, and more.

The time dimension is addressed by investigation of the geological and hydrological dynamics of the system, e.g., by dating of the groundwater host rocks, by isotopic dating of the water itself, and on the small scale by seasonally repeated measurements.