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Mining has played an instrumental role in the development of modern society. These benefits have associated impacts and risks that must be managed by mining companies to retain their social licence to operate. A critical risk remains the ability to sustainably close mining operations. The concept of planning and executing mine closure has existed for a number of decades with the overarching philosophy “that closure should be considered throughout the lifecycle of a mine, from cradle to cradle” (Grant 2018). Regardless, there remain very few examples worldwide of successful mine closure and subsequent lease relinquishment, with notable exceptions (e.g. Grant 2006; Lacy & Bennett 2015). A major part of the challenge is that closure planning is rarely seen within the culture of the industry as a core business activity, and subsequently it is rarely integrated with other mineplanning activities more relevant to the day-to-day operation of the mine (e.g. short and medium mine planning, LoAP). This is generally due to the lack of ownership of closure issues by the site mine management teams, as closure is either seen as being too far into the future or someone else’s problem. This is despite the establishment of clear closure policy by most mining corporations and the many changes in mine closure related regulation around the globe <...>
Mining operations can generate enormous amounts of waste (i.e. waste rock and tailings) that must be managed and handled in an appropriate way to avoid any possible negative environmental impact, such as air, soil and water pollution.
The Earth’s Crust is the topmost solid layer of the Earth which has a thickness of 30–35 km in the continents and 5–6 km in the oceans (the Mantle and the Core being the other two inner parts of the earth). According to F.W. Clarke, the abundance of Chemical elements in the earth’s crust is shown in Table 1.1. The chemical elements that occur in the earth’s crust in compound forms are known as minerals. However, certain elements like Gold, Silver, Platinum and Copper often occur in native form.
The Middle Miocene Orduzu volcanic suite, which is a part of the widespread Neogene Yamadag˘ volcanism of Eastern Anatolia, consists of a rhyolitic lava flow, rhyolitic dykes, a trachyandesitic lava flow and basaltic trachyandesitic dykes. Existence of mafic enclaves and globules in some of the volcanic rocks, and microtextures in phenocrysts indicate that magma mingling and mixing between andesitic and basaltic melts played an important role in the evolution of the volcanic suite. Major and trace element characteristics of the volcanic rocks are similar to those formed in convergent margin settings.
Although aspects of mineral deposit evaluation are covered in such texts as McKinstry (1948), Peters (1978), Reedman (1979) and Barnes (1980), no widely available in-depth treatment of the subject has been presented. It is thus the intention of the present book to produce a text which is suitable for both undergraduate and postgraduate students of mining geology and mining engineering and which, at the same time, is of use to those already following a professional career in the mining industry. An attempt has been made to present the material in such a way as to be intelligible to the average geologist, or engineer, who is perhaps daunted by the more mathematical approach to the subject of orereserves found in more specialist books and papers. Although most of the theory in this book is written using metric units, individual case histories are described using the units employed at each mine at the time of writing <...>
Conceptual models that describe the essential characteristics of groups of similar deposits have a long and useful role in geology. The first models were undoubtedly empirical attempts to extend previous experiences into future success. An example might be the seeking of additional gold nuggets in a stream in which one nugget had already been found, and the extension of that model to include other streams as well. Emphasis within the U.S. Geological Survey on the synthesis of mineral deposit models (as contrasted with a long line of descriptive and genetic studies of specific ore deposits) began with the collation by R. L. Erickson (1982) of 48 models. The 85 descriptive deposit models and 60 grade-tonnage models presented here are the culmination of a process that began in 1983 as part of the USGS-INGEOMINAS Cooperative Mineral Resource Assessment of Colombia (Hodges and others, 1984). Effective cooperation on this project required that U.S. and Colombian geologists agree on a classification of mineral deposits, and effective resource assessment of such a broad region required that grade-tonnage models be created for a large
number of mineral deposit types. A concise one-page format for descriptive models was drawn up by Dennis CO X, Donald Singer, and Byron Berger, and Singer devised a graphical way of presenting grade and tonnage data. Sixty-five descriptive models (Cox, 1983a and b) and 37 grade-tonnage models (Singer and Mosier, 1983a and b) were applied to the Colombian project. Because interest in these models ranged far beyond the Colombian activity, it was decided to enlarge the number of models and to include other aspects of mineral deposit modeling. Our colleagues in
the Geological Survey of Canada have preceded this effort by publishing a superb compilation of models of deposits important in Canada (Eckstrand, 1984). Not urprisingly, our models converge quite well, and in several cases we have drawn freely from the Canadian publication.
Mineral deposits are usually classified and described by the metals or the substances which they contain; for instance, deposits of copper are described together, with little or no effort to separate them into genetic groups. Where a genetic treatment has been attempted it appears to me to have failed in not giving due weight to the physical conditions attending the genesis. Furthermore, it is the custom to divide the mineral deposits into two groups—the metallic and the non-metallic—a line of division which can hardly be defended except on the ground of long-established habit.
Mineral deposits are the source of all the metals, industrial and bulk minerals that feed the global economy. In addition to being key primary sources of wealth generation, mineral deposits are also valuable windows through which to view the evolution and interrelationships of the Earth system. Unlike hydrocarbon deposits that are largely restricted to more recent phases of geological time, mineral deposits have formed throughout the last 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. As such they preserve key evidence for early magmatic and tectonic processes, the state of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and the evolution of life. Furthermore, the very activities of exploration, evaluation and mining of mineral deposits, generate more comprehensive 3D geological information than is generally obtainable in unmineralized rocks, and increasing amounts of this formerly proprietary data are being released into the public domain. <...>
This five day field trip is a general overview of the geology and tectonic history of central Colorado and of the geology of seven famous mining districts. Some of these mining districts had their most productive years in the latter decades of the 19th century, whereas others reached their peak production more recently. At present mining activity in some of them has ceased. In others it is at low levels compared to earlier years. The regional geology and the road log are compiled from numerous sources. The principal ones are field trip guides by Tweto (1978), Reed and others (1988), Lipman (in press) and unpublished field guides of the Colorado Scientific Society and the Society of Economic Geologists. Figure 1 shows the principal geographic features along the route of the trip. <...>
