Palynological methods are extensively used in Quaternary biostratigraphical investigations. The application of palynology in Pleistocene stratigraphy, including glacial deposits, is connected with some special problems. Intensive geological processes affecting the formation of autochthonous pollen spectra and the break up, rebedding and transport of pollen-bearing sediments complicates the interpretation of the stratigraphy considerably. Therefore attention has been focused on methodical problems.

Various palaeoecological trends have been identified in the Phanerozoic, each focusing on different aspects of the fossil record. Patterns that have been described include histories of tiering, palaeocommunity species richness, and guild occupation in evolutionary faunas, as well as onshore-offshore trends in origination, expansion and retreat. Patterns of change through time have also been documented from biosedimentological features (ichnofabrics, microbial structures, shell beds). Such trends can be compared and contrasted to yield unique insights into understanding the changing ecology of the past, and in particular may be helpful in evaluating the relative degree of ecological degradation caused by a mass extinction. This comparative approach can also shed light on a variety of fundamental palaeobiological problems, for example, why no new body plans (phyla) have evolved since the early Phanerozoic. Causes of this phenomenon are thought to be either: (1) ecospace was not sufficiently open after the early Phanerozoic for survival of new body plans; or (2) accumulating developmental constraints after the early Phanerozoic have prevented the evolution of new body plans. Because the Permian-Triassic mass extinction was the most devastating biotic crisis of the Phanerozoic, one might expect new body plans to appear if ecospace were the primary limiting factor and opened sufficiently by this mass extinction. Although previous studies have shown that ecospace availability in the Cambrian and Early Triassic was indeed different, this comparative approach indicates that ecological conditions in the Early Triassic were most like those of the Late Cambrian/Early Ordovician. Thus, if ecospace availability has constrained the survival of new body plans, then ecospace has always been sufficiently filled after the Cambrian explosion to inhibit their evolution.

Mud resistivity can be verified using the BKZ curve using the non –permeable interval with interval thickness / Bit Size > 16 and RT considerably higher than Mud resistivity.
BKZ departure curve is plotted on logarithmic transparency together with Bit Size constant vertical line (X axis AO/BS, Y axis Rapp/Rm). Bit size constant is overlaid with BS line on No-Invasion chart for appropriate device type (lateral or normal) The transparency is moved vertically along the BS line on the chart until the BKZ curve is matched with the chart (specifically the left part of the curve )  Verified RM  is defined as the Y value of the transparency grid crossed by Rapp / Rmud = 1 line (chart cross). Mud resistivity value is read from the transparency grid, RT defined as Y value on the chart grid where the BKZ measurement curve crosses the A line on the chart

Seed wave modelling applications for fragmentation, damage, and environmental impact control 

C.K. McKenzie

Design and general practice of mass blast in underground open stopping mining method 

Q. Liu

Improving pit wall stability by minimizing blast damage vis a vis rock characterization at RAM 

P.K. Rajmeny, R. Shrimali, L.S. Shekhawat & A. Joshi

New physical findings revolutionize the drilling and blasting technology as well as the prediction of ground vibrations—Part 1: The new blasting model

B. Mueller & H.P. Rossmanith