Cablebolts are high capacity flexible tendons composed of multi-wire strand which are normally installed and grouted in drilled holes at regular spacings to provide reinforcement and support of excavations in rock. They can be cut to any length and installed in single or multi-strand configurations and can be installed from small adits and tunnels (drifts) where limited clearance would preclude the use of rigid tendons.

Cadia Valley Operations Cadia Valley Operations
• Ridgeway underground mine producing 5.6Mtpa Ridgeway underground mine producing 5.6Mtpa Au/Cu ore Au/Cu ore
• Cadia Hill open pit mine producing Cadia Hill open pit mine producing +17Mtpa Au/Cu ore Au/Cu ore
• Ore processing complex treating Ore processing complex treating +22Mtpa ore 22Mtpa ore
• $900M in assets $900M in assets
• Full time employment of around 900 people Full time employment of around 900 people
• Forecast production current year +680koz Au & Forecast production current year +680koz Au & 
+80kt Cu +80kt Cu

The first part of this chapter briefly introduces the application of Ca stable isotopes in Earth sciences and other branches of natural sciences and summarizes the early history of Ca isotope research. Furthermore, tables with fundamental reference data are provided. The second part introduces the principles of equilibrium and kinetic isotope fractionation theory and discusses isotope fractionation in open and closed systems. It briefly touches on the mass-dependence of equilibrium and kinetic isotope fractionation and approaches to obtain equilibrium isotope fractionation factors experimentally. The reference at the end of this chapter provides a list of general introductions to stable isotope geochemistry and to previous reviews that focused on Ca stable isotopes. <...>