Since the publication of my book Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters (Columbia University Press, 2007; second edition, 2017), the fields of evolutionary biology and paleontology have made many new discoveries. Meanwhile, the evidence for evolution has been piling up and accumulating since publication in 1859 of the revolutionary book, On the Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin. Some of that evidence is discussed in my first evolution book, but much of it is new, or mentioned only briefly in that book. <...>

Geologists have long maintained that their discipline differs strikingly from chemistry and physics in being historical. There has been almost no explicit consideration by geologists, however, of the particular methodological problems imposed by the historical dimension. Historians and philosophers, on the other hand, have considered the problems of historical method at great length, and in recent years there has been, it seems, an increased interest in the methodology and philosophy of history. It is my purpose here to consider the extent to whieh the issues raised in recent discussions of explanation in human history are pertinent to the problem of explanation in historical geology. Because paleontology presents special methodological problems that I shall later discuss in detail (see pp. 148-70), Ihave omitted at this point any consideration of geological explanations containing paleontological concepts. <...>

After a general introduction to folding this session considers what special terms are required to describe the geometric features of folds: first those terms necessary to define features of a single folded surface, then those which describe the geometric relationships of adjacent folded layers. Special techniques to describe curvature variations based on harmonic—or Fourier—analyses are recommended and it is shown how this type of analysis is practical both for general descriptive purposes as well as for very exact analysis. The relationships of small wavelength folds in polyharmonic folds are described and practical ways of recording changing fold symmetry discussed.

The evolution of the global oceanic and atmospheric circulation systems has been affected by several forcing processes, with orbital variations being dominant on shorter geological time scales. Over longer periods of time (>10 Ma) the tectonic evolution of the solid Earth has been recognized as the major control on the development of the global climate system. Tectonic activity acts in one of two different ways to influence regional and global climate. The earliest solid Earthclimatic interaction recognized was the effect that the opening and closure of oceanic gateways had on the circulation patterns in the global ocean. Major effects on regional and sometimes global climate have been attributed to such changes, e.g. closure of the Isthmus of Panama (Driscoll & Haug 1998). Since the late 1980s a second form of climate-tectonic interaction has been recognized, involving the growth and erosion of orogenic belts. In this second category the Arabian Sea region must be considered the global type example. <...>